Introduction
In this era of globalization, global free markets have implications for how countries need to prepare for the transfer of economic power to one another (Carlton, 1949). In particular, subtle differences have emerged in the field of education. The World Bank (2023) stated its mission to ‘end poverty’ and promote the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It has brought into focus two aspects of its practice. On the positive side, this international organization facilitates the development of its member countries, particularly in the field of education. However, there has been criticism that the World Bank does not provide clear procedures to member countries regarding the investment guidelines for their funds (Ravallion, 2016). Another challenge that member states often face is their ethical obligations, particularly in the allocation of resources. Additionally, Stausholm et al. (2022) highlighted that some developing countries engage in illegal activities that harm their economies, such as signing contracts with foreign companies without following legal procedures for their benefit.
This essay will focus on an ongoing case, specifically the mica mining case in India, and its impact on children's access to education, as it involves child labor. Kissin (2023) reported India has the highest World Bank debt as of December 2021. Furthermore, this country's Corruption Perceptions Index obtained a score of 39 out of 100, with zero denoting extreme corruption and 100 reflecting complete cleanliness (International Transparency, 2023). India's dire economic conditions affect schooling. Long working hours force many children to continue working as mica miners instead of attending school. Some illicit local companies collaborate with large multinational companies. These companies benefit from this condition. For instance, the controversy surrounding the Merck Company in the cosmetics sector presents positive and negative public opinion. According to their website, they are accountable for the issue, and the processed product should comply with ethical standards. They contend they carried out their research in India. This leads to the standardization of the products they produce. However, the challenge lies in the fact that if the children lose their jobs, it could significantly impact the family's financial standing. Therefore, it is still possible for various illegal activities to occur (Kate et al., 2016).
The writer will investigate this particular issue of child labor and how it hinders children from their right to education by applying the concept of dependency theory. On a broader level, this theory will also provide an argument for how holistically the international system may prevent developing nations from prospering. Specifically, the writer intends to explore some key elements from the dependency theory concept, which include core-periphery structure, unequal exchange, underdevelopment, imperialism and exploitation, limited state autonomy, and the importance of structural change.
The Role of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in Mica Mining
The advancement of science has an impact on people's lifestyles. The natural resource, mica, has attracted several investors in the cosmetics industry and transportation. This mineral primarily originates from several nations, including India, Brazil, and Finland. Furthermore, several leading companies, including BMW, L'Oreal, and Glossier, use this natural resource. For instance, the electric car industry uses makeup-based insulation substances to insulate high-voltage battery pack systems, thermal battery systems, and heat-resistant platforms (Fahim, 2024). Another example in the beauty industry involves the use of this natural resource in products such as eyeshadows, lipsticks, and body lotions. The cosmetics may assist with concealing fine lines and wrinkles on the skin (RMI, 2020).
One of the primary concerns in mica mining is child labor, which occurs when children prefer to work rather than attend school for a variety of reasons, including a lack of financial resources. Several reputable businesses source this natural resource in a more sustainable manner to prevent child labor. Moreover, in the study by Lendal et al. (2014), these MNCs comply with international standards such as the International Labor Organization (ILO), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, and Fairtrade International. However, even if the MNCs have a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) plan to prohibit child labor, it remains unfeasible to ensure that no children participate in the extraction of mica from their suppliers. People struggle to meet their basic needs, which leads to several illegal practices. In response to an investigation, Glossier (n.d.) stated that they require their partner to fully commit to their code of conduct, demonstrating their dedication to operating their company in an ethical, responsible, and considerate manner. However, the ongoing presence of children in illegal mica extraction practices is still an area of concern.
Mica Mining on Economic Disparity and Poverty within India
India has an immense population, with roughly 30% of it living in poverty across the country. Andhra Pradesh, located in a region on the southern coast, is among the country's most densely populated. It has 21% of its residents living in poverty (Serneels & Dercon, 2021). Another study by Coffey et al. (2019) discovered that the nation's caste-based system is associated with socioeconomic inequality. There is a well-established correlation between poverty and the caste-based system, which divides education, land ownership, consumption, healthcare access, and subjective well-being. Another instance of this discrepancy occurs regionally, resulting in economic inequality since per capita income and development levels range across India. According to one study, policy interventions should focus on income distribution and increasing resource allocation to poor regions such as Eastern and Central India to reduce inequality (Kumar et al., 2020). Scholars have also linked the rise of capitalism to impacts on serious corruption and increasing disparities in the country. Furthermore, a small number of those with political and business connections dominate the economy, which has sparked dissatisfaction and an understanding of unjust practices.
Due to its excellent quality, large volumes, and low cost, this country is considered one of the biggest suppliers of mica to the market (Swamidurai & d'Andriole, 2022). Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) frequently processes mica production in India, requiring miners to work manually inside tunnels. Schipper and Cowan (2018) discovered that an estimated 89% of mining in Jharkhand/Bihar is unlawful, with an illegal miner in India earning 45% of their work. This illustrates how the sector, due to its relatively low financial compensation, exacerbates poverty among its workers, resulting in unsustainable living conditions. The severe economic hardship that families in the area encounter has a detrimental effect on their children's right to an education. Given the legal framework in place over the years, the ongoing issue of mica mining remains an unpleasant reality. Much has shifted; the areas where children engage are more dynamic than ever. This community places little value on education. They prefer to earn one rupee alongside the children and then allocate the same amount for their education (Aslam, 2020). The schooling facilities supplied by the government are also inadequate. The only option available to parents is to let their children collect the mineral.
Mica Mining, Child Labor, and Local Community Education
One of the main causes of children's forced labor is poverty. Garg (1998) elucidated that children often receive inadequate remuneration for their work, and the perception of their limited legal or political authority renders them vulnerable to exploitation. This situation differs from that of adults who may express dissatisfaction with their jobs. Coping with this issue is challenging since mica mining has been widely acknowledged as one of the primary keys to technological advancement. It transforms how individuals live every day. While this development may benefit financially secure individuals, it also raises a particular difficulty for children who live in poverty. Numerous studies have revealed that a single phenomenon cannot be the origin of child labor. Moreover, Nguyen (2017) argued that child labor encompasses various issues such as globalization, restricted education, and the social-cultural notions that differentiate between child and childhood. Numerous global organizations highlight the significance of ensuring children's access to education as a means to prevent children from committing child labor. Nevertheless, the present mica mining sector indicates that addressing this issue is unavoidable.
As previously stated, the existence of mica mining itself appears to limit the exploitation of children in the industry. Existing corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs may provide methods to prevent these complex issues. One of these initiatives is the Responsible Mica Initiative (RMI). The RMI routinely attends seminars on supply chain responsibility, human rights, and child labor. The site also claims that this project accomplished numerous objectives, including offering scholarships to 300 children to prevent dropouts (RMI, 2023). Yet, Font et al. (2012) found that there is a significant disparity between the goals of CSR and the actual challenges with implementation. Extreme poverty in this country makes it difficult to eliminate child labor, and it even encourages local communities whose livelihoods depend on mica mining to involve children in the laborious process. CSR staff might carry out thorough inquiries. However, it is implausible to assert that the study's findings indicate no child labor in the area, given that minors continue to work illegally within the mining area.
Global Policy Intervention
The RMI gathered together 20 companies concerned with the issue of child labor, and by the end of the year, its membership had increased to 97 (RMI, 2023). This group communicated its goals and plans to government agencies, enterprises, intergovernmental groups, and industrial associations. They came to promote workplace regulations and ethical practices in mining and mica manufacturing operations. In another case, Kate et al. (2016) stated that the Natural Resources Stewardship Circle (NRSC) and Business for Social Responsibility (BSR) jointly established the Responsible Mica Sourcing Summit in 2016. According to Bliss (2017, as cited in Rozani, 2022), the objective of this program is to engage 63 stakeholders, including reputable companies like L'Oreal, Estée Lauder, and Chanel, by educating them about the societal and financial risks associated with mica. The ultimate goal is to reach a consensus among these stakeholders to prioritize "traceability and transparency, involvement in the community, and multistakeholder governance." For instance, Deanna RC provided several additional villages for Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA) to help children receiving an education in public schools (Kate et al., 2016).
Considering international regulation on this issue, three conventions provide fundamental legal norms for children: the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the ILO Convention, and Convention number 138 (Minimum Age Convention) (O’Driscoll, 2017, as cited in Rozani, 2022). The Convention stipulates that children under the age of eighteen cannot work in mining jobs, and those under the age of fourteen cannot participate for any reason (OHCHR, 1989). Besides, Boateng (2017) underlined that aFurthermore, Boateng (2017) highlighted that despite the ILO's efforts to collaborate with the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and other international organizations to prevent child labor through their International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC), data indicates that this collaboration has a limited impact on achieving results. ublished its report on the Worst Forms of Child Labor in India, which classified this country as making moderate progress in eliminating the child labor issue. The government has been able to implement legislation preventing child mining in Jharkhand through government institutions such as the State Government Labor Inspectorate, the Child Welfare Committee, and the Vigilance Committee.
Dependency Theory on Children’s Right to Education in India
The dependency theory is a framework that tackles economic underdevelopment, emphasizing the global division of employment, social classes, and globalized capitalism (Sens, 2012). It focuses on the world's political and economic order. Raúl Prebisch, an Argentine economist and statesman, initially proposed it in the 1960s (Vang-Phu & Dar, 2022). This model primarily attributes the phenomenon of underdevelopment to four positions: the Center of the Center, the Periphery of the Center, the Center of the Periphery, and the Periphery of the Periphery. Moreover, the aforementioned theoretical framework is an effective tool to understand the issue of mica mining in India. Marginson (2019) elucidated the limitations of the human capital theory, specifically its impediment to children's access to education and the emergence of an endless cycle of poverty, which is further compounded by the children's diverse family conditions. The limitations of this theory align with the principles of dependency theory.
- Center of Center (CC) – The USA
The CC alludes to the world's wealthiest and most dominant countries, such as the USA. According to this theory, the centers lead in industry, technology, education, and research. Globalization has transformed the economic climate, resulting in the emergence of global hegemonic practices (Rizvi et al., 2022). This country plays a significant part in establishing and upholding hegemony in the postwar international order, particularly in the international political economy. It controlled the establishment of the postwar liberal international economy and enacted several free trade initiatives, including the Bretton Woods system and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (Saull, 2010).
Ratnam (1998) highlighted that since India's liberalization in 1991, the USA has had a significant part in the expansion of MNCs. India attracted MNCs from the USA because of its large and developing market, active democracy, legitimate legal system, powerful bureaucracy, competitive human and environmental assets, and widespread use of English as a business language. India has also received major portfolio investments from the USA, the UK, and Singapore.
Therefore, from a top-down perspective, it is evident that all activity originates from the hegemony of a single country, which ultimately affects the economies of developing nations. MNCs and CSR initiatives aim to address this issue, especially in the educational sector. Comprehensive studies can only decrease the number of children who engage in mica mining since the possibility of illegal extraction remains, considering that mica is a substantial natural resource, especially for the nations deemed as the CC.
- Periphery of Center (PC) – Canada
In terms of its economy, people view Canada as a second-class nation, ranking behind the top states (Klassen, 2009). However, it pales in comparison to peripheral countries such as India. Furthermore, despite its limited development in the periphery, this country heavily relies on mining projects to generate revenue and gain a competitive advantage over the United States and Europe (Seccareccia, 2007). Klassen (2009) further elucidated Canada's economic isolation, Americanization, and growing dependence on the USA. They point out that American investment dominates the Canadian economy and that the Canadian elites only serve US interests. This country has a considerable GDP, is a leading exporter and importer, and contributes to a larger percentage of GDP through foreign commerce than several European countries (UNCTAD, 2008; OECD, 2009). However, there is disagreement over whether Canada depends on the United States or is an independent imperialist.
- Center of Periphery (CP) - India
India is considered a CP in the global economy due to its economic characteristics and position in the international arena (Lizza, 2009, as cited in Fabbietti, 2013). The country's fiscal policies have recognized the value of the free market in its economic growth process, leading to a change toward a more market-oriented strategy. Moreover, Fabbietti (2013) argued that India's major centers, like New Delhi, Mumbai, and Calcutta, are essential to the country's economic networks and wealth centralization. Despite being one of the world's fastest-growing economies, India continues to grapple with underdevelopment and low living standards (Boillot, 2007, as cited in Fabbietti, 2013). This unequal distribution has a bearing on the country's sociopolitical equilibrium and affects the nation's overall development and stability. Lizza (2009, as cited in Fabbietti, 2013) further elucidated that India's economic condition, characterized by an advanced and technologically sophisticated industry coexisting with severe poverty, highlights the challenges the country faces as a developing country.
- Periphery of Periphery (PP) - Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe's economy is classified as PP. It is a peripheral capitalist country in the southern African region. This nation inherited a financial system that promoted white consumption of luxury items, leading to a highly unequal income distribution. Mlambo (2017) argued that Zimbabwe is one of the world's most unequal economies, with only a minority of the population controlling a share of the national income. Additionally, Zimbabwe faces transformation restrictions and peripheral countries heavily reliant on capitalist production, which raise concerns about diminishing output and hyperinflation (Fitzgerald, 1986). These variables play a significant role in Zimbabwe's economic performance. This nation struggles with socioeconomic change and inequality.
As described previously, such inequality exists due to capitalism, wherein wealthy nations dominate developing countries (Marginson, 2019). Even under this assumption, it remains questionable whether a distinction exists between those with money and those struggling in each country's position. This framework solely describes how the economy operates in general as opposed to providing explicit practical solutions. The country's duty and ethics determine the extent of accountability for the established system. For instance, India can request funds from the World Bank to invest in its country. Despite the disclosed records confirming their investments, allegations of corruption continue to occur (Wickens, 2007). Generally speaking, the World Bank does not provide comprehensive guidance to the member state. They delegate the authority to the member state. Ultimately, the argument asserts that developing countries cannot grow due to the system designed to remain as such, commonly referred to as underdevelopment.
Conclusion
For many years, the practice of child labor in mining industries has persisted without a complete solution. The sole approach is to minimize the number of children involved in this activity. The growing number of MNCs offers advantages and downsides. Furthermore, the dependency theory delves into the positioning and construction of a nation as it transitions from the CC to the PP position. This theory argues that underdevelopment best represents the worldwide situation now and how it affects developing countries. Ultimately, the theory's foundational idea is the belief that there is an international division of labor, class distinctions, and global capitalism.
The authorities may contend that they carried it out by adhering to specific regulations for MNCs and implementing various CSR initiatives. However, the scenario remains ambiguous as it would overlook or eliminate some external variables. This theory additionally explains why each developing country experiences an ongoing cycle of poverty. The government should prioritize educating its citizens to improve their job performance, thereby reducing the country's reliance on foreign nations. In particular, India, where the caste-based system still exists, should prioritize education to reduce inequality.
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