Introduction
Indonesia is currently dealing with a significant influx of refugees. As reported by The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in 2023, there are approximately 12,199 refugees within the country’s borders. Notably, this country has not ratified the 1951 Refugee Convention, specifically in UU 6 about immigration, which stipulates that every individual entering or leaving the country must possess valid travel documents. This legal stance results in the categorization of refugees as illegal immigrants. Furthermore, it makes them ineligible to work in Indonesia. This standpoint also disregards the refugees' right to education, as outlined in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN, 1948).
In the case of Indonesia, this situation leads to a certain level of devaluation of human rights. In particular, the scarcity of job opportunities contributes to the reluctance to enable refugees to work in this country (Nola, 2021). This essay aims to explore the Indonesian government's response to this issue, utilizing the Neo-Gramscian Theory. This theoretical framework analyzes the practices of power, culture, and hegemony in this context, offering a profound explanation of the complex dynamics surrounding refugee rights and their integration into society.
Neo-Gramscian Theory as The Theoretical Framework
The influential idea of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci, or the so-called Neo-Gramscian Theory, holds important theoretical value for a profound understanding of the dynamics of power.’ This theory illuminates decision-making processes, resource allocation, and the ability to set policies. This theory also explains how dominant ideas and values in society shape 'culture'. Ultimately, these two aspects of the theory aid in comprehending the operation of 'hegemony', as it is impossible to fully appreciate power without taking these elements into account (Ramesh, 2021). Moreover, culture is a central concept that establishes the so-called "norm," dictating practices and institutions to maintain dominance and ideology. Thus, this theoretical framework describes hegemony not as an independent variable, but rather as intertwined with power and cultural practices.
The theory serves as an analytical tool to explore how power and cultural dynamics form hegemonic practices in the context of the right to education for refugees in Indonesia. This framework will scrutinize how media, beliefs, identities, and values shape cultural practices and how power influences these variables to build a particular hegemonic agenda (Winkler, 2020). In extreme scenarios, individuals in power may exert influence over cultural practices, which potentially leads to conflicts and normalized political views. Despite the existing moral foundation of politics, the issue remains unresolved and continues to be a subject of ongoing debate.
Historical Context of Refugee Education in Indonesia
Indonesia's failure to ratify the 1951 Refugee Convention absolves them of the responsibility to become citizens of the country. HoweHowever, in 1979, the government began collaborating with the UNHCR to establish a refugee camp on Galang Island, in response to an influx of approximately 170,000 refugees fleeing from conflicts in neighboring countries. The number of asylum seekers fluctuated, rising from late 2000 to 2002 and then declining from 2003 to 2008. After a temporary slowdown from 2015 to 2020, the refugee population was on the rise again, reaching 13,745 individuals from 50 countries by the end of December 2020, with a significant number from Afghanistan. As of 2023, reports indicate that approximately 12,199 individuals are temporarily living in Indonesia.
In addition to the significant refugee population in Indonesia, access to education poses significant challenges. They could not work or attend school as illegal migrants. However, some nonprofit organizations facilitate free education for refugees. The Ministry of Education officially recognized access to schooling for refugee children based on the letter from the Secretary General of the Ministry of Education and Culture, number 75253/A.A.4/HK/2019 (Fatimah, 2023). Despite official recognition, language barriers remain one of the challenges for this country. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) in Indonesia has been providing hope for refugees to access formal education with the new regulation. This organization acts as the bridge between the refugees and the Indonesian government. Previously, the IOM was solely responsible for providing education, but now, refugees are afforded the opportunity to This education aims to equip refugees with skills for their repatriation to their homeland or their resettlement in the third country.
Despite the recent and significant regulations on access to education, many children continue to face challenges. This is because some children may be reluctant to attend school, and their parents may not have the financial resources to support both their education and their temporary living arrangements (Aurelia & Renaldi, 2022). Since the parents bear the responsibility for funding, the policy faces a new challenge in addressing situations where children are ready for an education but their parents are unable to support them.
Power Dynamics on Refugee Education in Indonesia
Indonesia is a republican country, where the representatives of the citizens and the public hold the power of rule. Furthermore, Indonesia operates as a unitary state, with central law regulating all regions across the country. The citizens elect the president, who serves as the head of the government. The Undang-Undang Dasar (UUD) of 1945 serves as the foundational law. Other laws, such as resolutions and decisions by The People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indonesia (MPR-RI), government regulations, presidential regulations, and local government regulations, follow it.
This extensive bureaucracy often presents challenges in certain situations, such as ensuring refugees in this country have equal access. Prior to the new regulation's implementation, the official school rejected refugee students due to their status as illegal migrants. A recent initiative by the Ministry of Education has granted refugee children access to formal education, equipping them with the necessary skills to survive in their new third country or their home country. According to Fatimah's (2023) report, the government has shared the official letter regulating the refugees' right to education with several regions in Indonesia.
Based on the case, the government recognized the refugees' right to education and has made it equal to the citizens of Indonesia's right to education. Despite the government's efforts to promote equity, the parents are still unable to secure employment due to preexisting laws. Furthermore, Putra and Linda (2022) have argued that corruption remains a significant issue in this country, which is still in the process of developing, particularly in the area of social welfare. Another minor issue is the government's continued requirement for students to wear the same uniform. While the intention behind this is to foster a sense of unity, in practice, it imposes a burden on the citizens, who should still bear responsibility for this issue. Therefore, the Indonesian government must reassess and modify this policy. The government has offered financial aid programs for some students, but several schools are still involved in corrupt practices, particularly in the school infrastructure development (Purwanto et al., 2021).
The media has also identified key individuals as involved players. The media plays a crucial role in strengthening the identity of refugees in this case. Several media portray refugees as potential social actors for their respective countries, highlighting their ability to send their children to school and their ability to find hope amidst uncertainty. However, some media portray refugees as the source of problems for the country (Adiputera & Prabandari, 2018). For instance, in 2023, Aceh, Indonesia, denied the Rohingya refugees the right to remain. The media demonstrated the case to the audience by having an interview with local people around there, in which the emergence of new issues caused by the refugees, such as rape, escaping without notifying the local government of the third country, and other forms of disrespectfulness, was discussed. It is partially true that refugees, especially children, require education. Many refugees may find themselves without access to education. Essentially, human beings are prone to error, and education serves as a means to mitigate this tendency.
Cultural Dimensions of Refugee Education in Indonesia
In most cases, education in Indonesia remains exclusive due to a variety of factors, including limited facilities and human resources. Regarding facilities, many educational institutions segregate students, particularly those with communication disabilities (Tsaputra, 2016). This segregation is based on the perception that students with disabilities require specialized teachers, including the way teachers communicate with them to succeed in the learning process. Furthermore, the absence of inclusive facilities contributes to the confinement of individuals with disabilities in Indonesia to particular schools.
In the case of refugee education in Indonesia, socioeconomic factors affect the culture, making most schools in Indonesia unprepared to include refugee children. The limited enforcement of the new regulation on refugees' right to access education in several regions (Fatimah, 2023) demonstrates this. Additionally, Wijayanti (2020) explained that the presence of many local languages in different regions complicates the situation for refugee students. In most cases, Bahasa Indonesia serves as the language of instruction, but local people prefer and commonly use the local language in daily communication, forcing them to navigate two languages simultaneously.
Another cultural challenge is the curriculum, which includes subjects aimed at strengthening Indonesian identity, such as art and culture. However, this presents a dilemma for refugee education, as it does not align with their needs to prepare for life in a third country (Prabaningtyas et al., 2023). However, refugee children will not become Indonesian citizens, making these topics irrelevant.
Hegemonic Practices of Refugee Education in Indonesia
Neo-Gramscian theory explains more about how the power and cultural aspects in the country form hegemonic practices, after discussing the power dynamics and cultural dimensions at work and how they influence refugee education in Indonesia. The analysis elaborates as follows:
- Power and Culture
Key actors significantly influence the portrayal of refugees, and the media serves as a potent instrument in molding specific norms and ideologies (Ateed & Ozcan, 2023). Moreover, Indonesia, being a democratic country, emphasizes the significance of objective media portrayal that provides both negative and positive perspectives on refugees. Instead of portraying refugees as outsiders burdening the country, the media should emphasize the importance of education. The framing affects public opinion, and the culture formed around such media portrayals influences Indonesians to perceive refugees as an added burden to the country, especially in the context of economic instability.
- Hegemony and Culture
The second interrelated element focuses on how culture can influence hegemonic practices among those in power. If the media portrays refugees as a burden, it becomes a cultural norm for Indonesians. For example, individuals working for the government might use propaganda to achieve political purposes, knowing that in the context of Indonesian democracy, holding power and media are essential to influencing people. Ramesh (2021) explained that gradually, this cultural acceptance of the issue strengthens individual identities and perceptions.
- Hegemony and Power
Individuals vying for positions can quickly gain or lose power. This case allows individuals to compete and share their influence through various approaches, including generating propaganda in extreme scenarios. Individuals competing for top positions portray themselves as worthy leaders. When it comes to refugee education in Indonesia, the media plays a crucial role in shaping culture and ideology, allowing influential leaders to collaborate with those vying for leadership positions in the Indonesian government. For instance, there is absolute disagreement regarding the issue of corruption in refugee education. However, for several houses, how the media portrays refugee education as a low priority provides an alternative explanation of how corruptors benefit from this case. The hegemonic practice occurs when corruptors use governmental regulations and the media to manipulate public opinion, normalizing corruption as pre-existing data and portraying refugees as an additional burden on the country (Cader & Sundrijo, 2023).
G. Pre-repatriation and Educational Needs of Refugees
The issue of refugees has persisted for many years due to complex geopolitical problems (Chimni, 1998). All countries worldwide must address this global issue. In particular, access to education has been challenging for them, facing obstacles such as limited resources, language barriers, and a lack of infrastructure in several countries. In Indonesia, the IOM is one of the international organizations that has been grappling with these issues, mediating between refugees and governmental regulations. As more organizations address this issue, the likelihood of assisting refugees not only across multiple regions but also expanding their relocation to a broader area increases. Concentrating all refugees in one area, such as Jakarta, will pose a challenge for all stakeholders to manage the influx of refugees from other countries. Indeed, establishing an organization would also require support from both national and international governments.
Implications and Recommendations
Indonesia should prioritize addressing refugee issues, particularly in the field of education. Human error should not be the sole perception of refugees as a threat to the country. Some individuals may be perceived as law-abiding, but they also have the potential to break the regulations. When it comes to crime, education plays a significant role in educating individuals, rather than rejecting and repatriating those who have traveled and survived for miles, whether by sea or on foot. The country could provide a humane way to educate them in the first place before repatriating them.
The writer believes that this issue will remain unsolved if host countries perceive refugees as a threat to them. This situation presents an opportunity for refugees to travel to other countries and acquire specific experiences through education. Once they complete their education, they must return to their home country, where they will contribute to positive change as a generation. These refugees hold the potential to be the future hope for their homeland.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the counter-hegemonic practices toward this issue include portraying refugees as an opportunity for every host country, particularly in Indonesia, to address this global issue more humanely. It includes providing them with the right access to education. Once they graduate from school, they must apply the knowledge and skills they gained in their host country back home. While it may become a challenge for them initially, as they return to a country with its own set of issues, the responsibility lies in their readiness to fight for justice and make changes. Gradually, as the generation changes, these returning refugees become agents of change. The media and the government can achieve the hegemonic practices of refugee education by centralizing their powers. These key actors shape culture, ensuring a new positive perception of refugees in every country.
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